OCEAN GOVERNANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY
Present Trends - Future Challenges
George
Pararas-Carayannis
Plenary Lecture
- 30th Pacem in Maribus (PEACE IN THE OCEANS).
A Year after Johannesburg. Ocean Governance and Sustainable Development:
Ocean and Coasts - a Glimpse into the Future
Kiev,
Ukraine, October 26-30, 2003
(©)
Copyright 2003 George Pararas-Carayannis
ABSTRACT
The world oceans,
seas and coastal areas are in a state of crisis, facing a greater
array of problems and dangers than ever before in history. With
over half of the world's population living along coastal areas,
there has been unprecedented commercial and residential overdevelopment.
Toxic pollution from cities and fields, anthropogenic waste disposal,
excessive nutrients and oil spills, increasingly threaten living
and nonliving resources in the coastal and ocean environments
- adversely impacting and fundamentally changing natural ecosystems,
and even threatening human health. Marine life and vital coastal
habitats are straining under the increasing pressure of deteriorating
sea water quality and the cumulative effects of excessive human
use. Eutrofication has resulted in harmful algae blooms. The
ability of marine ecosystems to produce the economic and ecological
goods and services that are desired and needed, have been substantially
reduced. In some instances there has been a significant decline
of ocean wildlife and even collapses of ocean ecosystems. It
is clearly evident that what we once considered to be inexhaustible
and resilient is, in fact, finite and fragile.
Environmental
concerns are even more acute in closed and semi-closed seas,
such as the Black Sea, where specific problems exist within both
the suboxic and euphotic zones. There is an urgent need for the
countries of the region to participate in global programs (such
as GOOS and GLOBEC), and to develop the appropriate infrastructure
and databases that will help carry out monitoring activities
and related future research for the systematic development of
forecasting systems. Additionally, anthropogenic emissions and
greenhouse gases are affecting both the atmosphere and the world's
oceans and are resulting in adverse climate changes, global warming,
and gradual rise in sea level. Obviously, to mitigate this adverse
impact on climate, there is a urgent need to commit to the guidelines
of the Kyoto Protocol.
Safety and security
of human activities along coastal areas and at sea continue to
be threatened by human activities, as well as by natural and
man-made disasters. To ensure safety in shipping and to avert
disasters at sea there is a need for close adherence to international
conventions, regulations, codes and protocols. Also, there is
a need for comprehensive emergency response plans and safety
procedures that will minimize the environmental risks of any
accident, no matter how unlikely. Although great progress in
natural disaster mitigation has been achieved as a result of
international efforts, public education on disaster preparedness
- particularly for certain regions of the world - still remains
inadequate.
Under present conditions
and trends, effective governance and sustainable development
of the world's oceans will require full implementation of international
and national legislation. PIM 2003 presents a unique opportunity
and a challenge for participants to:
a) evaluate progress
made since the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
and PIM 2002 in Johannesburg, on ocean governance issues as well
as on preparation for future trends and challenges that are facing
the world community.
b) identify and address
remaining environmental issues, the safety and security of human
activity at sea, and the need for education, training, and plans
of action for further development and sustainability of oceans
and coasts.
c) make appropriate
recommendations and draft resolutions for necessary policies
and measures which will improve the understanding of ocean and
coastal resources management and conservation.
INTRODUCTION
Given the complexity
of issues pertaining to existing problems and trends that are
threatening the world's oceans and coastal areas, the following
presentation is neither comprehensive nor thematically or geographically
complete. It is only a cursory overview of what some of the current
conditions and trends are, outlining some of the present problems
and dangers, what future projections in areas of sustainable
development may be, and what proper governance of the oceans
will entail. The presentation addresses only a few of the major
topics of the 30th "Pacem in Maribus" (PIM 2003) conference.
PRESENT
TRENDS
Unequivocally, the
world oceans, seas and coastal areas are presently in a state
of crisis, facing a greater array of problems and dangers than
ever before in the history of mankind. The population explosion
in the latter part of the 20th Century has resulted in a growing
urbanization of the world's coastal areas. There has been unprecedented
commercial and residential over development along coastal areas
- where more than half of the world's population now live. In
many parts of the world this rapid expansion and development
of mega cities has occurred along very vulnerable and fragile
coastal zones that have unique ecosystems. Many of these mega
cities are also exposed to numerous natural and man-made hazards.
Climate changes, global warming and a rising sea level have complicated
the problems.
In spite of the apparent
vastness of the world's oceans, what once was considered inexhaustible
and resilient has become, in fact, finite and fragile. The increasing
pressure of excessive human use is straining marine life and
vital coastal habitats. Toxic pollution from cities and fields,
anthropogenic waste disposal, excessive nutrients and oil spills,
increasingly threaten both living and nonliving resources in
the coastal and oceanic environments - adversely impacting and
fundamentally changing natural ecosystems and even threatening
human health. Over fishing at sea, and increasing pollution are
leading to a decline of ocean wildlife and to the collapse of
many ecosystems.
The crossroad has
now been reached where the cumulative effects of what is taken
from and what is put into the world's oceans have reduced substantially
the ability of marine ecosystems to produce the economic and
ecological goods and services that are desired and needed. In
brief, if present trends are allowed to continue and if there
is continuing failure to responsibly manage the oceans and coastal
regions, there is risk of much greater losses in the near future
- at a much accelerated pace.
OBJECTIVES
OF PIM 2003
In view of such adverse
trends, there is need for urgent actions. The purpose, objectives
and topics of PIM 2003 clearly emphasize this need. During this
conference the primary task will be to identify more clearly
the present trends and constrains of ocean and coastal resources
management and conservation. Also, to address the emerging environmental
issues and the impacts on human health and marine ecosystems
governance issues that will result in the safety and security
of human activities at sea. Furthermore, to determine what education
and training is needed in the Ocean related sciences to ensure
that present trends are stopped and beneficially reversed. Finally,
the ultimate task will be to make appropriate recommendations
for the necessary policies, measures and international, regional,
national and local cooperation that will be needed to improve
the understanding of ocean and coastal resources management and
conservation that will result in the sustainable development
of the world's oceans and seas.
Fortunately, numerous
scientists, academicians, researchers and a variety of international
organizations have already identified most of the trends and
problems that are threatening the world's oceans and seas, thus
making the work of this conference easier. Given the high caliber
of people assembled here and having as guidelines the outcomes
of the Ocean Governance issues that were identified last year
at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD 2002) and
at the 29th Assembly of "Pacem In Maribus" (PIM 2002)
in Johannesburg, it will be possible to evaluate the progress
that has been made since and - in the form of resolutions - make
appropriate recommendations for plans of action that will result
in proper governance and sustainability of the world's oceans
and seas.
INTERNATIONAL
EFFORTS - A YEAR AFTER JOHANNESBURG
The 2002 World Summit
on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg made clear
that there had been very limited progress in implementing sustainable
development since the 1992 Earth Summit, with poverty around
the world increasing and environmental degradation of the planet
worsening. It became very apparent at the World Summit last year
that what was needed was not more philosophical or political
debates but rather practical steps for sustained actions that
would address many of the world's most pressing problems. Although
timetables and commitments were agreed upon in Johannesburg -
and in spite of good intentions - in the year since the Summit
there have been no quick solutions to aid the fight against poverty
or to reverse the continually deteriorating natural environment
conditions of planet Earth. In fact, there have been no magic
and no miracles. Given the magnitude of the global problems,
perhaps one year is too short of a time to reverse the present
trends. However, what the World Summit accomplished was a much
better understanding on how to go about solving the global problems
and what was essential for ensuring global sustainable development.
Although problems
pertaining to the world's oceans and seas were not addressed
in any detail, the World Summit emphasized the principles that
must be applied - specifically that good governance requires
full implementation of existing international and national legislation
and adoption and enforcement of new legislative instruments regulating
activities.
DEFINING
OCEAN GOVERNANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY
The World Summit in
Johannesburg defined sustainability of our planet to be a paradigm
which integrates economic growth, social development and environmental
protections as interdependent components and mutually supportive
elements of long-term development. Sustainability, therefore,
is the necessary prerequisite for the survival of our planet,
its people and its ecosystems, for the purpose of improving the
quality of human life, eliminating hunger and poverty, improving
the safety and security of human activities, mitigating the effects
of natural and man-made disasters, and in preserving the environmental
quality of our planet for future generations °© the
latter being a paramount ethical obligation.
By direct implication
therefore - and as it applies to the World's oceans, seas, estuaries
and coastal areas °© sustainability becomes a complex
process of development with many interacting factors leading
to the replenishment and stability of our water planet. Averting
further losses, reversing adverse trends and achieving ocean
stability and sustainability require proper ocean governance
- which can then be defined as a participatory, multi-task approach
to policy making, which mobilizes all public and private national
and international resources for such development. Finally, the
end result of proper ocean governance is the implementation of
policies and programs worldwide, and an action plan that results
in the development of sustainable resources and favorable environmental
conditions worldwide. Since Proper Ocean governance makes use
of the knowledge, skills and energy of all social and scientific
groups concerned with the future of planet Earth and its people,
proper education and training in the Ocean related sciences become
necessary prerequisites.
In summary, therefore,
sustainable development of the World's oceans, seas, estuaries
and coastal areas is a complex process with many interacting
factors. To understand it and effectively act on it requires
the participation and cooperation of all members of society,
including scientists, engineers, educators, communicators, policy
makers, community activists and of the public at large.
To implement programs
of ocean governance and sustainability as outlined above, it
is important to:
1) Identify emerging environmental issues and problems that threaten
humanity and marine ecosystems.
2) Identify the critical areas for long-term development, involving
complex interactions among economic, social and environmental
factors and linking different sectors, organizations and disciplines.
3) Formulate and carry out an effective plan of action.
IDENTIFYING EMERGING
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND THREATS TO HUMAN HEALTH
As indicated, the
World Summit and PIM 2002 in Johannesburg laid some of the groundwork
for further development of oceans and coasts and paved the way
for some form of action on ocean governance issues, as well as
on preparation for future trends and challenges that will face
the world community. As mentioned, most of the issues addressed
in Johannesburg - particularly those pertaining to the oceans
- have not been acted upon, while new issues and challenges that
PIM 2002 did not anticipate have since emerged.
PIM 2003 in its program
lists as a primary topic the need to identify emerging environmental
issues and the threats to human health. Eliminating threats to
human health is of paramount importance that requires correct
identification of pollution parameters and proper management
of water and sea product qualities. Preventing the introduction
of ballast and wastewaters or excessive amounts of nutrients,
helps avert harmful algae blooms, preserves the quality of sea
water and of sea products and, most importantly, eliminates the
threats to human life.
Eliminating
threats to human health
Indeed, the increasing
pollution of the marine environment continues to be the most
important environmental problem threatening both marine and human
life. Unprecedented amounts of toxins and high concentrations
of harmful chemicals released into the air and into coastal waters
present the greatest threat to human health. For example, chemicals
released by industrial plants and agricultural projects around
the world include a variety of nitrate compounds, acids such
as hydrochloric, formic and sulfuric, alcohols such as methanol,
N-butyl alcohol and cyclohexanol, chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants
such as 1,1-dichloro-1-fluoroethane, and a variety of other chemicals
such as ammonia or manganese compounds and heavy metals.
The direct and indirect threats to marine and
human health are obvious. Chemicals and toxins discharged into
the coastal waters or the atmosphere not only can damage marine
ecosystems but also can seriously affect the blood, lungs, hearts,
livers, intestines, thyroid, kidneys and nervous system of humans.
For example, excessive amounts of nitrates that are used in fertilizers,
explosives, fireworks, heart medicine and photographic films
can wash into waterways after rains, polluting the drinking water
supply as well as the coastal waters. Emissions of nitrogen oxide
in the atmosphere may combine with water to produce nitric acid,
a component of acid rain. Large amounts of nitrates can produce
toxic substances in the human body and nitrates are a suspected
cardiovascular toxicant. Similarly, exposure to acids, alcohols
and a variety of other chemical pollutants can cause, inflammation
and ulceration of the respiratory tract, nausea, vomiting, dehydration,
convulsions, shock, permanent visual damage, hemorrhaging, skin
burns, and depressive effects to the central nervous system.
Eliminating the threats
to human health from coastal pollution and gas emissions can
only be controlled and mitigated through the collaborative efforts
of the nations immediately affected. This can be accomplished
through the adaptation of proper national standards and stricter
measures that set pollution limits. Compliance with such standards
and the use of watershed-based approaches will result in further
reductions of toxic pollution.
Improving
the qualities of water and sea products
There is no doubt
that the unprecedented commercial and residential development
along the world's coastal areas is having adverse impacts on
water and sea product quality. The increased amounts of pollutants
result first in the deterioration of water quality, then adversely
affect the long-term health of marine life and marine ecosystems,
the quality of consumable sea products and, ultimately, affect
human health. For example, heavy metals such as mercury can now
be found in high concentrations, not only in benthic organisms
but also in pelagic fish such as tuna or swordfish consumed by
humans. This trend of deteriorating water quality can only be
reversed through stricter and enforceable regulatory controls
of industrial effluent discharged into the coastal environments.
Assessing parameters
of environmental pollution - Improving waste water management
Ocean dumping of anthropogenic
waste materials such as sewage sludge and of waste water can
significantly affect the qualities of the water and of the sea
products consumed by humans. Untreated or poorly treated sewage
sludge and municipal waste water discharged into coastal regions
can introduce pathogens, heavy metals and a variety of toxins
which can affect the food chain of benthic and pelagic life.
As indicated, the consumption of such sea products can have long-term
deleterious effects on human health. This paramount hazard to
human health can only be alleviated through better waste water
management, frequent monitoring of pollution indicators and proper
regulation. Ensuring proper treatment of sewage and wastewater
and eliminating toxic chemicals from municipal discharges, is
an absolute necessity for restoring health to affected coastal
ecosystems.
Eliminating
agents of eutrophication - Preventing harmful algae blooms
Massive agricultural
over-fertilization as well as domestic and industrial pollution
result in excessive amounts of nutrients running off to the sea
- thus creating many environmental problems. Excessive amounts
of nutrient and chemicals, such as nitrogen and phosphorous,
dramatically contribute to eutrophication and result in the growth
of plankton and algae, causing algal blooms. By depleting oxygen,
the algal blooms upset or destroy the ecological balance of many
endemic ecosystems. The problem is most pronounced in closed
or semi-enclosed sea basins. For example, algal blooms have been
responsible for significantly altering the ecological balance
of the Black Sea region. Recent studies estimated that over 600,000
tons of nutrients, the result of discharges from mainly household
waste waters, industry and agriculture, are entering into the
Black Sea from rivers and land sources. The levels of phosphorous
are up to ten times in excess of maximum allowable limits. In
the past 25 to 30 years, such nutrient-rich effluents have transformed
the Black Sea from a diverse ecosystem supporting varied marine
life to plankton one °© where environmental conditions
are unsuitable for most organisms of higher order in the food
chain. For example dolphin numbers have fallen five fold. Obviously,
controlling or preventing harmful algae blooms would contribute
significantly in sustaining the ecological balance of coastal
regions and of semi-closed and closed seas. Eliminating the agents
of eutophication presents a particular challenge in ocean governance
and in the sustainability of fisheries
PROBLEMS
OF COASTAL AND OCEAN PROTECTION AND INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT - THE
NEED FOR PROPER GOVERNANCE OF COASTAL DEVELOPMENT
Protecting the marine environment from
land-based sources of pollution
Protecting the marine
environment from land based sources of pollution presents the
greatest challenge in achieving ocean sustainability. The toxic
substances running off coastal mega cities or agricultural areas,
as well as gases and chemicals discharged by smokestacks and
tailpipes of machines present the greatest pollution threat to
the coastal waters of many nations.
It is apparent that
the reversal of the adverse effects of coastal pollution and
of gas emissions can only be controlled and mitigated through
the collaborative efforts of the nations immediately affected.
This can be accomplished through the adaptation of proper national
standards and of stricter measures that set pollution limits,
by compliance with such standards, and by further reductions
in toxic pollution using watershed-based approaches.
In regions such as
the Black Sea there is an urgent need to review again the priorities
and long term strategies of conservation and restoration, and
to help raise funds to carry out such work. The Black Sea water
system could be one of the first to benefit from concerted sustainability
actions because; in many ways, it represents an acute example
of the many problems facing water systems worldwide. It could
prove to be the ideal blue print for saving many of the world's
water bodies from terminal decline.
Mitigating
the interaction effects of big river basins with sea-ocean waters
- Mitigating industrial impacts and cleaning coastal waters
As emphasized already,
the extensive industrialization and urbanization of river basins
and the big river interaction with the sea-ocean waters, have
created severe problems of water quality and have reduced drastically
coastal and pelagic biodiversity around the world. For example,
the discharges of rivers such as Danube, Dnieper and Don into
the Black and Azov Seas have created acute environmental and
health problems for this region. Increased demands by cities,
industry and agriculture on the Danube river basin, not only
have affected the supply and quality of drinking water, but wastewater
disposal has resulted in increased amounts of pollution in the
basin - which ultimately ends up in the Black Sea. As indicated,
the pollution has affected very large coastal areas, has created
serious health problems, and has drastically reduced coastal
and pelagic biodiversity of the entire basin and of the Black
Sea.
The actions and initiatives
taken thus far have proved to be insufficient in reversing the
environmental degradation and health problems. The challenge
in the future will be for the countries in the region to work
together and to intensify their efforts in mitigating the environmental
degradation of the Danube and the Black Sea. The Danube River
Protection Convention (DRPC) and the Convention on the Protection
of the Black Sea against Pollution (Black Sea Convention) have
already drawn up programs defining strategies and identifying
priorities. However, this is not enough. There is an urgent need
to increase the funding for these programs and to carry out effective
action plans that will improve the state of the environment in
the region. As the European Commission and its DABLAS Task Force
communicated in November 2001, there is an urgent need for an
increased involvement of the EU and its Member States in environmental
co-operation with the region, and for a more efficient funding
of projects recommended by the two main water protection organizations
in the region - namely the International Commission for the Protection
of the Black Sea (ICPBS) and the International Commission for
the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR).
LIVING
AND NON-LIVING RESOURCES
Governance
of Fisheries - Eliminating Overfishing, wasteful bycatch and
destruction of habitats - Improving management of ecosystems.
Fishing is the world's
oldest industry and a way of life for millions of people who
live along the world's coastal regions. For many of the world's
nations, the fishing industry is a national heritage that has
enriched their social, cultural and economic life. Unfortunately
there is overwhelming body of evidence and data indicating that
over fishing, wasteful bycatch, and destruction of habitats by
increasing pollution, result in changes in marine food webs and
are threatening the living resources upon which the fishing industries
of many nations depend. If the present trend is allowed to continue,
the long-term results will be dismal. According to recent reports,
during the past 20 years around a third of fish stocks have been
lost. Only six of the 26 species commercially exploited in the
1960s remain in commercial quantities.
The sudden and dramatic
fall which begun in the late 1980s and early 1990s shows just
how vulnerable fisheries in the Black Sea can be to pollution
and the introduction of alien species. Obviously, there is an
urgent need for the adoption of ecosystem-based management that
restricts destructive fishing gear, and eliminates the wasteful
practice of discarding unintended catch. Central to this goal
within the fishery management process °© and in order
to maintain sustainability - is the immediate need to separate
conservation decisions as to how many fish are caught, to allocation
decisions - as who is allowed to catch them.
Developing Sustainable
Marine Aquaculture and Mariculture
The aquaculture of
fish, shellfish, or aquatic plants-has grown rapidly over the
past several decades. Hard clams, oysters, shrimp, Atlantic salmon,
and nearly all the catfish and Trout are produced by such industries.
With fishery catches declining due to over fishing, marine aquaculture
and Mariculture hold great promise as important sources of seafood.
However, different species and production systems present various
challenges and great risks, which complicate the proper management
of these industries. These risks must be properly evaluated and
mitigated.
For example, improper
design, siting, and operation of marine aquaculture facilities
can reduce water quality, damage the physical habitat, and harm
wild populations in a variety of ways. Farmed fish can escape
their pens and pose biological risks to wild populations. Large
releases of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal matter from such
farming can damage the coastal environment in the same way as
releases of nutrient waste in untreated sewage of large human
coastal settlements. To prevent, minimize and mitigate possible
adverse impacts that these new industries can generate, there
must be ecologically sound management. Proper governance and
sustainability of the marine aquaculture and Mari culture industries
will require the establishment of proper international standards
and conservation principles and a coherent international policy
for the siting, design, operation and regulation of marine aquaculture
and mariculture facilities, as well as international trading
agreements encouraging ecologically sustainable practices.
CLIMATE
CHANGES - DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
Accurate evaluation
of present climate changes and future impacts
Climate changes, global
warming and a rising sea level are having serious adverse impacts
on human and animal life of our planet and are the cause of great
concern. Climate changes are resulting also in an increase of
natural disasters. Although an overall pattern of global warming
begun long ago, there is substantial amount of evidence, which
indicates that dramatic changes in climate are occurring in recent
years at a much-accelerated rate. Both terrestrial and astronomic
factors are believed to be responsible for the present trend.
Human activity factors are also believed to contribute to climate
changes °© although this impact has not been adequately
estimated at the present time.
To evaluate properly
the earth's climate changes we must first review the processes
that cause them. Throughout geologic time, the Earth's climate
has been an unstable dynamic system that has undergone short
and long term cycles of heating up or cooling down - with corresponding
rises and falls in sea level. Important natural drivers responsible
for the climatic changes involve both astronomical and terrestrial
factors. The sun is the primary source of energy that affects
the earth's climate. The astronomical factors include the geometry
and orbital variability of our solar system, solar storms and
flares, sunspot cycles, solar winds and incoming solar luminosity
and ultraviolet radiation. Natural terrestrial climate drivers
include the global geometry of continent/ocean distribution,
ocean tide cycles, periodic ocean circulation changes such as
El Nino, weathering of rocks and the thermal and particle input
of volcanic eruptions.
Hurricane Olga near
Bermuda on November 28, 2001 (SeaWiFS image)
In the 15,000 years
of the Pleistocene Period - with the exception of a few short
cooling cycles - there has been an overall pattern of global
warming that has affected both the earth's climate and the sea
level. The geoclimatic record of the last 400 years indicates
a natural trend of increasing global temperatures and a rising
sea level. Following WWII, there was a brief 30-year cooling
period. However, the trend reversed in the mid1970's. Since then,
there has been a continuous rise in the average global temperatures,
a rise in sea level, and apparent climate changes.
These climate changes
have been the cause of great alarm. Increases in the use of fossil
fuels and the resulting gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and methane °© among others °© are suspected
to be additional human activity drivers that contribute to natural
global warming and to associated climatic changes. To what extent
these greenhouse gases affect climate is not yet conclusively
known. However, the need to evaluate the effects of human activities
on climate has led to the formation of international organizations,
such as the U. N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
and to international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol. This
latter Protocol represents a good faith commitment of the "developed"
nations to reduce their collective greenhouse gas emissions by
approximately 5% by the year 2012. Since the Protocol sets parameters
that cannot be properly measured or regulated, it remains to
be seen as to what extend the Protocol's signatory parties will
honor this moral commitment.
Mitigating
impacts of natural and man-made disasters - Disaster preparedness
The safety and security
of human settlements along coastal areas will continue to be
threatened by both natural and man-made disasters. Although great
progress in disaster mitigation has been achieved as a result
of international efforts, public education on disaster preparedness
- particularly for certain regions of the world - still remains
inadequate. To reverse this trend and to ensure the protection
of human life and property along the world's overdeveloped coastal
areas, it will be necessary to increase the levels of financial
support for educational programs of disaster preparedness and
mitigation.
SAFETY AND
SECURITY OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES AT SEA
The safety and security
of human activities at sea represent a continuous challenge in
ocean governance. For example, there are unique safety problems
associated with activities such as shipping and the exploitation
of gas and oil resources by near shore and offshore platforms.
Military operations and activities at sea present their own unique
safety problems for human as well as aquatic life. For certain
regions of the world, piracy continues to be a threat to human
safety at sea.
Ensuring safety in shipping and in
the transportation of harmful substances and nuclear waste products
To ensure safety in
shipping, to avert disasters at sea and to assure the safe transportation
of oil, chemicals, nuclear waste materials and other substances
that can be potentially disastrous to the marine ecosystems and
to human life, there is a need for closer adherence to international
conventions, regulations, codes and protocols. Also, there is
a need to develop more comprehensive emergency response plans
and safety procedures that will minimize the environmental risks
of any accident at sea, no matter how unlikely it may appear
to be. For example, the shipping of oil must be done by tankers
that meet the strictest safety requirements of hull integrity
and of immediate containment of leaks. The shipping of substances,
such as nuclear material or fuel must continue to be closely
regulated to avert any accident that may release harmful radioactivity
in the marine environment. Present and emerging risks involving
safety in the shipping and the transportation of harmful substances
present many challenges for the future.
Securing the Safety
of Marine Life from Military and Research Activities at Sea
There are indications
that certain ocean research programs and military activities
at sea may present unique threats to marine life. Even well intended
experiments such as ATOC (Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate)
which aim to measure temperature change in the ocean and global
climate change by using sound sent across entire ocean basins,
may be harmful to marine life. The methods used in the collection
of such thermal ocean data or for military acoustic intelligence
use powerful low and medium frequency sounds, which appear to
have an adverse impact on certain types of marine life. Such
activities and experiments appear to have harmed or killed whales,
dolphins and other marine mammals around the world. It is still
unknown how such sounds affect whales and other marine mammals
or how harmful they may be in the long term. Therefore, before
continuing with such experiments, there must be a careful and
conclusive evaluation on what sound frequencies may be harmful
to whales and other marine animals, so that military activities
and ocean thermography experiments can be adjusted accordingly.
PROBLEMS
OF SEMI-CLOSED AND CLOSED SEAS
Reversing
present trends and ensuring sustainability of semi-closed and
closed seas
As previously mentioned,
many of the world's semi-closed and closed seas have unique environmental
problems that need to be evaluated through proper data collection
so that action plans can be taken to mitigate adverse impacts.
The Black Sea has been presented as an example of a semi-enclosed
sea that faces major problems. In this region of the world, human
health, marine ecosystems and animal wildlife have been adversely
affected and are seriously threatened by large discharges of
raw sewage and the dumping of semi-treated sewage sludge and
of polluted dredged spoils. Present trends must be reversed.
The ecological sustainability of the Black Sea will depend on
drastically reducing the present levels of pollution that are
introduced into the waterways from industries, municipalities
and agricultural projects of neighboring countries. As mentioned
previously, eutrophication and the resulting algal blooms, which
deplete the oxygen levels and thus affect both coastal and pelagic
marine life, cause the most important environmental problem.
For the initiatives
and protocols that resulted from the June 2002 Bucharest Convention
to become effective, it will be necessary to first identify accurately
the land-based sources of pollution that affect the Black Sea.
Subsequently, baseline levels of pollution must be determined
and effective data management programs must be established. These
will help decision makers mitigate problems of pollution in the
region through proper regulation and monitoring of effluent discharges.
In view of such needs,
it will be important for the countries of the region to participate
more actively in global programs such as GOOS and GLOBEC and
thus develop the appropriate infrastructure and databases that
will help carry out the monitoring activities and the needed
research for the systematic development of forecasting systems.
The necessity of such data collection, monitoring, and research
cannot be overemphasized. Only through such concerted data management
efforts, the objectives and strategic action plan of the Bucharest
Convention and of the Black Sea Environmental Programme (BSEP)
can be realized. Only through such a concerted data management
programs, the rehabilitation and sustainability of the Black
Sea can be achieved and future ecological disasters be alleviated.
As previously suggested, the Black Sea can be the model for other
areas of the world that face similar problems.
EDUCATION
AND TRAINING IN OCEAN RELATED FIELDS
Investing
in programs of education and training
That the world's oceans
and seas are in a state of crisis is a fact that has already
been established. Although the remaining problems for ocean sustainability
are many, they are not insurmountable. In addition to the programs
of data collection and management outlined previously, emphasis
must be also placed to the need for programs of education and
training in the ocean related sciences. These programs are needed
in order to produce the qualified specialists that will effectively
manage the efforts for the sustainability of our water planet.
There has never been a more critical time for the nations of
the world to increase their investment in ocean science, research
and the education and training of marine specialists. This may
be a long-term investment, but one that will pay off handsomely
in the future if ocean sustainability is to be achieved.
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR PROPER GOVERNANCE AND SUSTAINABILITY OF THE WORLD'S OCEANS,
SEAS AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS
Protection
of marine resources - The need for an international approach
The time for philosophical
discussions of threats facing our oceans, seas and coastal areas
is over. We have a fairly accurate understanding of present trends
and future challenges. Certainly we can improve on our environmental
monitoring activities and the organization and management of
databases. However, much more is needed.
The international
nature of the crisis must be further recognized through additional
concerted actions. By failing to responsibly manage our oceans,
seas and coastal areas, we risk losing much more in the future.
Presently, most of the policies at the national levels are usually
assortments of limited laws that usually respond to crisis situations.
To be effective and successful in properly managing critical
ocean resources and in ensuring responsible governance of the
world's oceans and seas, there is an urgent need for a new international
approach. Immediate reforms of national and international ocean
laws and policies are needed to mitigate the effects of pollution
and thus avert further declines of ocean wildlife, protect ocean
ecosystems from further catastrophic collapses, and. restore
marine wildlife.
This is a critical
time for the international community of nations to act by increasing
their investments in ocean science, research and education -
and thus help preserve the ecological, economic, and social benefits
the world's oceans and seas provide. Practical solutions are
needed for ocean, sea and coastal environment governance that
will ensure that future generations will be able to enjoy healthy
sea products and an abundance of ocean wild life. There is a
need for educational programs that will help people around the
world understand what sustainable development of our oceans and
seas is, and will mobilize them to act - in their various social
roles - to promote it. There is a need for the adaptation of
an ocean conservation ethic that recognizes our moral obligation
to future generations to provide them with a clean and healthy
earth and water planet.
Proposal
for an International Decade for Ocean Governance and Sustainability
(IDOGS)
To avert the continuing
decline of ocean wildlife and the collapse of ocean ecosystems,
it will be necessary to institute immediate reforms, policies
and plans of action which must reflect the substantial changes
in our knowledge of the world's oceans and seas and our values
toward them. The new initiatives must cut across lines of national
jurisdiction and involve all members of the international community.
An International Ocean Policy Act is needed °© perhaps
in the form of a UN resolution - that will endorse an international
commitment to protect, restore and sustain our planet's living
oceans and seas.
The establishment
of an independent oceans agency or program under the umbrella
of the United Nations and the declaration of an International
Decade of Ocean Governance and Sustainability (IDOGS) are proposed,
perhaps beginning as early as the year 2005. The proposed Decade
will promote the recommendations of the last World Summit, of
PIM 2002 in Johannesburg, as well as those of PIM 2003. The recommendations
from PIM 2003 must emphasize that proper governance and sustainability
are fundamental necessities for the survival of our water planet
and its ecosystems, and in improving the quality and health of
human life. The recommendations must also emphasize our moral
obligation to preserve the environmental quality of our planet
for future generations.
The proposed International
Decade on Ocean Governance and Sustainability (IDOGS) could be
structured in the same way the International Decade of Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was structured for the 19990's. The
proposed Decade would be of immense importance in helping the
reversal of present adverse impacts and in improving the environmental
quality of our oceans, seas and coastal regions. Furthermore,
it could help streamline existing national and international
ocean management programs by promoting coordination and in redirecting
government programs and subsidies that contribute in preventing
the degradation of the coastal environment, in restoring fisheries,
in providing guidelines for sustainable marine aquaculture, in
establishing appropriate databases, in promoting and establishing
research and education programs, and in developing ethical standards
that embraces the use of the oceans as a public trust °©
a trust that recognizes present and future human dependence on
healthy marine ecosystems.
Finally, international
cooperation at a grass-roots level - promoted by the Decade -
could also create regional ecosystem councils around the world
that could bring fishermen, scientists, citizens, and government
officials together. Such regional groups could help develop ocean
management plans and contribute to the international network
of marine reserves for the purpose of protecting and restoring
fragile ocean habitats, controlling anthropogenic emissions and
greenhouse gases that threaten our earth's climate and, finally,
in mitigating the effects of natural and man-made disasters.
Acknowledgements
I wish to express
my appreciation to the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
(NASU), the International Ocean Institute (IOI), the Oceanological
Centre of the NASU and the PIM 2003 Organizing Committee, for
inviting me to participate at the 30th Pacem in Maribus Conference.
ADDITIONAL READING
Return to
Links to other
Pages
Now available
from Amazon, Barnes and Noble and other major bookstores.
(©) Copyright
1963-2007 George Pararas-Carayannis / all rights reserved / Information
on this site is for viewing and personal information only - protected
by copyright. Any unauthorized use or reproduction of material
from this site without written permission is prohibited.
